Basic terminology
- Anther The part of the stamen of a flower that bears the pollen. It is usually a double-celled sac situated at the end of a slender, threadlike stem (the filament).
- Cross-pollination The transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another.
- Entomology The branch of zoology that deals with insects.
- Filament The stalklike part of a stamen that supports the anther.
- Pistil The part of a flower that produces seeds, consisting, when complete, of an ovary, a style, and a stigma.
- Pollen A fine, yellowish powder consisting of grains or microspores, each of which contains a mature or immature male gametophyte. In flowering plants, pollen is released from the anthers of flowers and fertilises the pistils.
- Pollen sac The baglike structure in the anther of a flower in which the pollen is produced.
- Pollen tube A tube that grows from a pollen grain. Male reproductive cells move through the pollen tube into the ovule.
- Pollination For flowering plants, pollination involves the transfer of pollen from the anthers (male part of a flower) to the stigmas (female part) of the flowers for fertilisation, as by insects or the wind.
- Pollinator An insect or other agent that pollinates plants.
- Self-pollination The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of another flower or clove of the same plant.
- Stamen The part of a flower that contains the pollen, consisting of a slender, threadlike stem or filament which supports the anther. The stamens are surrounded by the petals.
- Stigma The part of the pistil of a flowering plant that receives the pollen.
Types of pollinators
Animal pollinators across the world include various species like insects, birds, and small mammals. In Europe, pollinators are mostly insects, such as bees, butterflies, moths, beetles, flies and wasps. Though not animals, wind and water can also facilitate pollination in certain plants, like grasses and some aquatic species.
Bees
Bees are the most effective and well-known pollinators. Their hairy bodies trap pollen and carry it from flower to flower. There are more than 2000 wild bee species in Europe (Ghisbain et al. 2023), including honeybees, bumblebees, and solitary bees (like mason bees).
Butterflies
Active during the day, butterflies are attracted to brightly coloured and scented flowers with a solid landing platform.
Moths
Moths are typically nocturnal and are attracted to flowers that are heavily scented, white or pale in colour.
Beetles
Beetles pollinate a wide variety of plants, often those with strong, fruity, or spicy scents.
Flies
Certain flies, like hoverflies and bee flies, are also effective pollinators, particularly in colder climates where bees might be less active.
Wasps
Some wasps are also pollinators, though they are less efficient than bees.
Threats to pollinators
Protecting and conserving pollinator populations is vital for maintaining healthy ecosystems and food security. Unfortunately, some pollinators have experienced severe declines during the past decades. They face numerous threats, including climate change (Hegland et al. 2009; Memmott et al. 2007), agricultural intensification (Kremen et al. 2002; Tscharntke et al. 2005; Kennedy et al. 2013), diseases, pests and pathogens (Cameron et al. 2011) and invasive species (Abe et al. 2008; Moron et al. 2009).
According to the IUCN Red List, one in every three bee, butterfly and hoverfly species is in decline, and one in ten bee and butterfly species is threatened with extinction. And yet, the full extent of declines, their complex causes, and the most effective ways to respond to them are not well understood.
That is why researchers around the world are doing their best to address knowledge gaps and find a way to reverse pollinator declines contributing to a sustainable future.How to help pollinators
You can help pollinators too! Just follow these steps: